Paraphrasing and Summarizing
There are numerous methods for interpreting and criticizing texts. Two methods that can help you to understand an author's meaning are paraphrasing and summarizing. Both can be essential to the research progress, as well, inasmuch as research requires you to represent accurately what others have had to say (it's worth remembering that when you do either in a paper—paraphrase or summarize--you must cite your source).
I have adapted the materials that follow from a handout given out by one of my former UCLA teaching colleagues. Alas, the original handout has no name on it and so our benefactor must remain anonymous.
In paraphrase, we restate a text or passage, giving the meaning in another form. In a way, we attempt to adapt ourselves to the author by picking words and phrases from our own vocabulary that can accommodate the meaning we perceive in his or her words and phrases. It includes matching our own words and phrases with what we think are the meanings in the author's words and phrases. It is an open-ended, trial-and-error process, subject to ongoing correction.
As an example, not of the actual trial-and-error matching process, but of the result of that process, consider the following paraphrase of the first paragraph in the Declaration of Independence:
Original Paragraph
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
Paraphrase
When some people think they must break away from others, and assume the independent and equal status that all people deserve, they ought to explain their reasons for doing so.
Note that a paraphrase conveys the same ideas, but may not at all convey the full effect or flavor of the original. The above paraphrase, for example, conveys nothing of the grand tone produced by 'When in the course of human events" or "to assume among the powers of the earth" of "the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God." Still, paraphrasing is worthwhile, for in finding different words that will accommodate the author's meaning, we have in a sense made his meaning our own and thus come to understand him.
The second technique is summary. A summary gives a shortened form of a work, retaining the general sense and unity of the original. As a process it too is most likely an open-ended, trial-and-error matching activity subject to ongoing correction. Both paraphrase and summary are probably reciprocal, i.e., paraphrase helps one to summarize, and summary helps one to paraphrase. One difference between summary and paraphrase is in their respective lengths; a paraphrase might well be as long as (or longer than) the original, whereas a summary is shorter. A summary of the passage paraphrased above might read:
Summary
If they wish to be respected, people must not dissolve their ties with others without giving reasons.
Or, even shorter:
The relations of civilized people are not altered except for cause.
Another difference between paraphrase and summary is that generally, paraphrasing is for shorter texts whereas summarizing is for longer texts. Reducing a long text to half but without omitting its step-by-step development combines both paraphrase and summary. A mere summary, on the other hand, would omit the step-by-step progression and reduce the whole text to its thesis and major supporting points in relatively fewer words. The value of summarizing is that the process of sifting and sorting to discover controlling ideas produces another level of understanding.
Summary may take various forms. The summary presented above concerns the author's explicit meaning. Another variation might refer to the author's implicit meaning. To use the Declaration paragraph again:
Summary
The Declaration begins by implying that the colonists are a civilized people who have achieved such stature as warrants separate nationhood.
Still other variations:
The Declaration begins by identifying three purposes of the "declaration": to dissolve a relationship, to assume independent status, and to justify these two preceding acts.
And:
The Declaration opens with the usual defense of revolution.
With this last example, we are leaving the area of an author's intended meaning and getting into a summary of one of the other meanings a text may have beyond its author's intended meaning—in the above case, the summary says we can understand the text as a typical example of a whole class of revolutionary documents.
An even clearer example of this kind of summary would be:
The Declaration takes the high moral stance typically adopted by the have-nots when they are about to take from the haves.
This summary interprets the Declaration writers as using moral statements to justify economic motives. At this point some might say that we have indeed left the realm of interpretation altogether and entered the domain of criticism. But to illustrate how criticism might still be different from the last two summaries, consider the next two statements, which are offered as examples of criticism (i.e., passing judgment about a thing's value or worth):
Criticism
The Declaration is one of the most stirring manifestoes ever composed.
The Declaration changed the course of human affairs the world over, and for the better.
"Critical" statements, then, are those intended to pass judgment about the value or lack of value of something. In the last two statements, "most stirring" and "for the better" are more obviously intended as value judgments.
In sum: interpretation is the art of understanding a text. Paraphrase and summary are two techniques that help us interpret. Paraphrase restates an author's meaning in different words. Summary gives a shortened version of the author's meaning, or one of the many other private or public meanings the text may have. Each technique sheds light on the other, and both increase our understanding. Beyond interpretation, criticism is a value judgment that often attempts to explain why what we have understood or interpreted is worth the effort.